Introduction: When Policy Meets Psychology

In December 2019, India’s parliament passed the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), triggering one of the most widespread protest movements in recent Indian history. While much analysis has focused on the legal, political, and constitutional dimensions of the CAA, this article examines a less explored yet equally critical aspect: the human psychology behind the protests.

The CAA provides an accelerated pathway to Indian citizenship for persecuted religious minorities—specifically Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis, and Christians—from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan who entered India before December 31, 2014. The conspicuous exclusion of Muslims from this list became the central point of contention, with critics arguing that it violates India’s secular constitutional framework by making religion an explicit criterion for citizenship.

But beyond policy debates, the CAA protests revealed profound psychological dynamics at play—from identity-based anxieties to collective solidarity, from trauma responses to resilience mechanisms. This article delves into how the human mind processes, responds to, and mobilizes against perceived threats to fundamental identities and values.

Social Identity Theory: The Psychology of “Us vs. Them”

To understand the psychological underpinnings of the CAA protests, we must first examine how social identity theory explains human behavior in group contexts. Developed by psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the late 1970s, social identity theory explains how our sense of self is derived in large part from the groups to which we belong.

The CAA controversy activated multiple layers of identity simultaneously:

Religious Identity

For many Muslims in India, the CAA represented an existential threat by creating a precedent where citizenship rights could be determined by religious affiliation. This perceived threat to religious identity mobilized widespread participation in protests, particularly noticeable at sites like Shaheen Bagh in Delhi, where Muslim women led one of the longest-running protest movements.

A 45-year-old protester at Shaheen Bagh told reporters: “This is not just about a law for us. It’s about whether we belong in this country at all. My family has been here for generations, but suddenly I’m being made to feel like an outsider.” This sentiment reflects how deeply the legislation touched core aspects of religious identity and belonging.

Constitutional Identity

Equally significant was how the protests mobilized around what scholars call “constitutional identity”—the core values and principles that define India as a nation. Professor Gary Jacobsohn, a leading expert on constitutional identity, explains that constitutions acquire their identity through historical experience and articulate not just legal frameworks but a nation’s aspirations and commitments.

For many protesters—including many non-Muslims—the CAA represented a violation of India’s constitutional identity as a secular republic where citizenship is not determined by religious affiliation. Students from universities like Jamia Millia Islamia and Jawaharlal Nehru University frequently cited constitutional provisions in their protests, indicating that their opposition stemmed from an attachment to constitutional values rather than religious solidarity alone.

“We are defending the soul of India,” said a 22-year-old Hindu student protesting at Jantar Mantar in Delhi. “This is about protecting the India that our constitution promised us—secular, equal, and just.”

National Identity

The protests also revealed competing visions of national identity. For supporters of the CAA, the legislation represented a humanitarian gesture aligned with India’s tradition of providing refuge to persecuted communities. For opponents, it threatened the inclusive, pluralistic vision of India enshrined in its founding documents.

Social identity theory helps explain why these competing visions became so emotionally charged—our national identity forms a core part of our self-concept, and perceived threats to it can trigger powerful defensive responses. The theory also explains why people who might never have participated in political protests before found themselves on the streets: when our group identity is threatened, we feel compelled to defend it.

The Psychology of Collective Action

What drives people to overcome the natural human tendency toward caution and self-preservation to join mass protests? Psychological research on collective action provides valuable insights.

Efficacy and Agency

People are more likely to participate in protests when they believe their actions can make a difference. This sense of collective efficacy was evident in many CAA protest sites. At Shaheen Bagh, for instance, the organic, leaderless nature of the protest created a sense of shared ownership that reinforced participants’ belief in their collective power.

A female protester in her 70s told journalists: “I never thought at my age I would be sitting on a road day and night. But when I saw these young people fighting for our rights, I knew I had to join. Together, we are stronger than any government.”

Emotional Catalysts

Emotions serve as powerful motivators for collective action. The CAA protests were fueled by several key emotional responses:

1. Moral Outrage: Research shows that perceived injustice triggers moral outrage, which is a robust predictor of protest participation. The exclusion of Muslims from the CAA was framed by opponents as a moral violation, triggering widespread indignation.
2. Fear and Anxiety: For many Muslims, the CAA in conjunction with a proposed National Register of Citizens (NRC) generated profound anxiety about their citizenship status. This existential fear became a powerful mobilizing force.
3. Hope and Solidarity: Paradoxically, while negative emotions often initiate protest movements, positive emotions like hope and the experience of solidarity sustain them. The vibrant cultural expressions at protest sites—including poetry, art, and community meals—created bonds of solidarity that sustained the movement for months.

A 32-year-old therapist who counseled CAA protesters observed: “Many clients first came to the protests out of fear or anger. But they kept coming back because they found something they hadn’t expected—a sense of community and purpose. Those positive emotions were crucial in sustaining their involvement despite the hardships.”

Mental Health Impact: The Psychological Toll of Protest and Conflict

While protest movements can empower participants, they also exact a significant psychological toll. Mental health professionals working with CAA protesters reported a range of effects:

Trauma and Anxiety

According to therapists working with protesters, many participants experienced trauma symptoms, particularly following incidents of police violence at universities like Jamia Millia Islamia. A therapist writing in The Swaddle noted: “Clients now schedule their therapy appointments based on protests timings, and clients now come to their sessions either emotionally charged or absolutely exhausted.”

The experience of N.M., a Muslim client described by this therapist, highlights the complexity of this trauma: “He now fears he will be displaced from his home because of his religious beliefs under the new citizenship rules… he is emotionally fatigued… This makes it excessively difficult for him to be functional, let alone productive, at work.”

Abdul Kalam Azad, a Guwahati-based researcher, explained another dimension of trauma related to the protests: “The fear of being stateless can induce trauma, which could be trans-generational in nature. Research has found that when a social group experiences historical trauma, it continues for generations.”

Identity-Based Stress

Many protesters experienced what psychologists call “minority stress”—the chronic stress faced by marginalized group members due to prejudice and discrimination. This was particularly acute for Muslim protesters, who reported feeling that their very identity was under threat.

A 21-year-old Muslim student told VICE: “I come from a small town where I never felt different because of my religion. But since the CAA debates started, I’ve become acutely aware of my Muslim identity in every space I enter. It’s exhausting to constantly feel like you have to justify your existence.”

Family Conflict and Alienation

The political divisions around CAA often split families, creating another layer of psychological distress. Therapists reported counseling young people who faced rejection from family members due to their political views.

A therapist described how one client, A.R., faced conflict with her parents over their differing views on the CAA: “Her political opinions differed from her parents’ opinions, and they were increasingly becoming averse to the idea of listening to her whenever disagreements arose… For A.R., these were not regular disagreements but represented something larger—’living in echo chambers, where the freedom of difference is no longer allowed.'”

Resilience and Post-Traumatic Growth

Despite these challenges, many protesters also experienced what psychologists call “post-traumatic growth”—positive psychological changes that occur following struggle with highly challenging circumstances.

Mental health professionals noted that participation in protests provided some individuals with a newfound sense of purpose, community, and agency. As one social psychologist observed: “Empathy and solidarity are healing agents,” noting that many first-time protesters found their involvement empowering despite the stresses involved.

Mob Psychology vs. Collective Intelligence

One of the most persistent misconceptions about protest movements involves what’s often called “mob psychology”—the idea that individuals in crowds abandon rational thought and become susceptible to emotional contagion and dangerous groupthink.

Modern research challenges this outdated view. Contemporary social psychologists distinguish between deindividuation (loss of individual identity in crowds) and social identity formation (adopting a shared group identity with norms and values).

The Elaborated Social Identity Model

The Elaborated Social Identity Model (ESIM) provides a more nuanced understanding of crowd behavior. Rather than seeing crowds as mindless mobs, ESIM recognizes that people in crowds maintain agency and typically adhere to group norms that often explicitly embrace non-violence and solidarity.

This was evident in many CAA protest sites. At Shaheen Bagh, protesters established clear norms around non-violence, cleanliness, and inclusivity. Volunteers managed traffic, organized clean-up crews, and created a community library. These organized behaviors reflect collective intelligence rather than mob mentality.

Dr. Stephen Reicher, a leading expert on crowd psychology, has argued against the “madness of crowds” narrative, noting: “Crowds don’t rob people of their ability to think. Rather, they provide a platform for shared values and coordinated action based on those values.”

The Psychological Legacy of Shaheen Bagh

Shaheen Bagh emerged as the epicenter of anti-CAA protests, particularly notable for being led primarily by Muslim women. From a psychological perspective, this protest site offers rich insights into collective identity formation and empowerment.

Gender and Empowerment

The prominent role of women at Shaheen Bagh challenged traditional gender expectations within both Muslim communities and Indian society more broadly. Psychologically, this represented what researchers call “identity entrepreneurship”—the strategic creation of new social identities that challenge existing power structures.

A 65-year-old woman who participated in the Shaheen Bagh protests told researchers: “Before this, I never left my neighborhood alone. Now I travel across the city to attend protests and speak into microphones. This movement has changed how I see myself.”

Community Building as Resistance

Psychologists observed that Shaheen Bagh evolved beyond mere protest into a space of community building. Protesters established a makeshift library, art installations, and community kitchens. These activities served psychological functions by:

1. Creating emotional bonds between participants
2. Demonstrating protesters’ constructive intentions
3. Building a microcosm of the inclusive society they envisioned

This phenomenon aligns with research showing that effective social movements create “prefigurative spaces” that embody the social arrangements they seek to establish in the broader society.

Conclusion: The Psychological Aftermath and Future Implications

Four years after the initial CAA protests, their psychological legacy continues to shape Indian society. When the government implemented the CAA in March 2024, the response was more muted—partly due to COVID-19’s intervening impact, but also because the psychological terrain had shifted.

Psychologically, the CAA controversy represents a case study in how policies that touch on fundamental aspects of identity—religious, constitutional, and national—can mobilize powerful collective responses. The protests demonstrated both the psychological vulnerabilities exposed by identity-based legislation and the remarkable resilience of individuals and communities in defending their vision of belonging.

As India continues to navigate questions of citizenship, identity, and nationhood, understanding the psychological dimensions of these issues becomes increasingly vital. Beyond legal and political analyses, recognizing how policies impact people’s sense of identity, security, and belonging provides essential insights for building a society where diverse identities can coexist without fear or marginalization.

The human mind—with its need for identity, belonging, and meaning—remains the ultimate terrain on which the future of pluralistic democracy will be decided. The CAA protests remind us that psychological considerations must be central, not peripheral, to policy discussions that touch on the fundamental question of who belongs.

This analysis draws on perspectives from social psychology, political psychology, and mental health research to provide a comprehensive understanding of the human dimensions of the CAA protests. While exploring the psychological impacts of these events, it acknowledges the complex interplay of identities, emotions, and group dynamics that characterized this significant moment in India’s democratic journey.